[1]对佛教于西方,特别是美国传播的历史作了很生动和直观的描述的是Rick Fields, How the Swans came to the Lake: A NarrativeHistory of Buddhism in America(《天鹅是怎样进入大湖的:佛教在美国叙事史》), Third Edition, Revisedand Updated, Boston & London: Shambhala, 1992。相对而言比较学术性的参考著作有:Stephen Batchelor, The Awakening of the West: the Encounter ofBuddhism and Western Culture(《西方的觉醒:佛教与西方文化的相遇》), Berkeley, California:Parallax Press, 1994; Thomas A. Tweed, TheAmerican Encounter with Buddhism 1844-1912: Victorian Culture and the Limits ofDissent(《美国与佛教的相遇1844-1912: 维多利亚文化和异议的局限》), Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana UniversityPress, 1992; Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka edited, The Faces of Buddhism in America(《美国佛教面面观》), Berkeley, California: Universityof California Press, 1998.
[2]对藏传佛教作出这类偏激批评者,还有不少曾经是把藏传佛教作为一种后现代虚拟宗教而狂热追随的人,由于幻想中的精神泡沫的破灭,生起了极度的失望,于是反过来对藏传佛教做了很多很不理性的揭露和批判。国际上较早从这角度出发对藏传佛教进行批判和攻击,并产生了较大影响的作品是:Victor and VictoriaTrimondi(作者的名字显然是化名), Der Schatten des Dalai Lama. Sexualit?t, Magie und Politik imtibetischen Buddhismus(《达赖喇嘛的阴影:藏传佛教中的性、神通和政治》), Düsseldorf: Patmos,1999。此书也有英文版于网络流传,题为:TheShadow of the Dalai Lama: Sexuality, Magic and Politics in Tibetan Buddhism。
[3]对构建“象雄文明”话语的尖锐批评见Per Kvaerne, “Bonand Buddhism: Two Faces of the Same Coin?(本教和佛教:同一枚硬币的二面)”,“西藏基金会讲座”(TibetFoundation Lecture),2017年11月21日于伦敦大学亚非学院, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tUBPEdyeT98。
[4]参见DonaldS. Lopez Jr., Prisoners of Shangri-la:Tibetan Buddhism and the West(《香格里拉的囚徒们:藏传佛教和西方》), Chicago: The Universityof Chicago Press, 1998; 沈卫荣,《想象西藏:跨文化视野中的和尚、活佛、喇嘛和密教》,北京:北京师范大学出版社,2015年。
[9]GeoffreySamuel, Civilized Shamans: Buddhism inTibetan Societies(《文明了的萨满们:西藏社会中的佛教》), Washington and London:Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.
[10]Lopez,Prisoners of Shangri-la, p. 15-40.
[11] L. Austine Waddell, The Buddhismof Tibet, or Lamaism, with its mystic cults, symbolism and mythology, andin its relation to Indian Buddhism (《西藏的佛教或者喇嘛教,附带它的神秘崇拜、象征主义和神话,以及它和印度佛教的关系》),W. H. Allem &Co,1895. 对它的批评参见 Donald S. Lopez Jr., ed., Curatorsof the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonialism (《佛之主事者们:殖民主义下的佛教研究》), Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995.
[12] “But the bulk of theLamaist cults comprise much deep-rooted devil-worship and sorcery,….For Lamaismis only thinly and imperfectly varnished over with Buddhist symbolism, beneathwhich the sinister growth of poly-demonist superstition darkly appears.” L.Austine Waddell. Tibetan Buddhism withits Mystic Cults, Symbolism and Mythology, New York: Dover Publications,1972, preface, p. xi.
[14]IssacJacob Schmidt, “über Lamaismus und die Bedeutungslosigkeit dieses Namens,” Bulletin Scientifique Publie par L AcademieImperiale des Sciences de Saint-Petersbourg(《圣彼得堡帝国科学院科学学报》) I. No. 1, 1836.
[15]DavidSnellgrove, Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: IndianBuddhism and Their Tibetan Successors(《印藏佛教:印度佛教和他们的西藏继承者们》), Boston: ShambhalaPublications, 2003 (1987), p. 118.
[16]对藏传佛教徒自我印度化和建构印度佛教史的努力参见David Templeman对藏传佛教觉囊派大师、《印度佛教史》的作者多罗那它(1575-1634)的生平和著作的研究:BecomingIndian: A Study of the Life of the 16th-17th CenturyTibetan Lama Tāranātha(《变成印度人:16至17世纪西藏喇嘛多罗那它生平研究》), Ph. D. Diss., Monash University, 2008; “Tāranātha and Indian Tantrik knowledge in the 16th and 17th centuries(多罗那它和16至17世纪时的印度密教知识),” A. Loseries Ed., TantricLiterature and Culture: Hermeneutics and Culture(《密教文献和文化:诠释学和文化》), Delhi India: Buddhist world press, 2013, pp. 116 - 137.
[17]Lopez,“Foreigner at the Lama’s feet”(拜倒在喇嘛脚下的外国人), Curators of the Buddha, pp. 251-295.
[18]参见Ronald M. Davidson, Tibetan Renaissance: Tantric Buddhism in theRebirth of Tibetan Culture(《西藏的文艺复兴:在西藏文化再生时的密乘佛教》), New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 2005.
[20]参见Donald S. LopezJr., “Polemical Literature (dGag lan)(诤论类文献)”, TibetanLiterature: Studies in Genre(《藏文文献分类研究》), edited by JoséIgnacio Cabezón and Roger R. Jackson, Ithaca: New York: Snow Lion Publications,1996, pp.217-228;杨杰,《“和尚之教”在西藏——以宁玛派对摩诃衍及其教法的诠释、辩护与批判为例》,《西域历史语言研究集刊》第十辑,北京:科学出版社,2018年,第335-365页。
[21]MarkusViehbeck, “Indo-Tibetan Relations in Tibetan Polemical Discourse: ReconsideringCultural Dynamics between Tradition and Innovation(西藏论诤话语中的印藏关系:重新思考传统和创新之间的文化动力),” Buddhism and the Dynamics of Transculturally: New Approaches(《佛教和跨文化的动力:新的路径》), edited by Birgit Kellner, De Gruyter, 2019, pp.201-223.
[22]参见C.W. Huntington, “A losttext of early Indian Madhyamaka (一部已经失落的早期印度中观文本),” Asiatische Studien (《亚洲研究》)49, 1995, pp. 693–767. C.W. Huntington,“Was Candraki?rti a Pra?san?gika?(月称是一名应成派[上师])” The Sva?tantrika-Pra?san?gikaDistinction: What Difference Does a Difference Make? (《自续派和应成派的差别:一种差别作成何种差别》), edited by Georges B.J. Dreyfus and SaraL. McClintock, Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2003, pp. 67–91. 由于印度后期佛教的历史在很大程度上是由多罗那它等藏传佛教史家们塑定的,印度佛教是研究如何跳出藏传佛教所建构的印度佛教历史叙事传统,这是印度佛教研究者们面临的巨大挑战。
[23] David Seyfort Ruegg, “The Indian and the Indic inTibetan Cultural History, and Tsong kha pa’s Achievement as a Scholar and Thinker:an Essay on the Concepts of Buddhism in Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism (西藏文化史上的印度的和印度式的,和宗喀巴作为一名学者和思想家的成就:论西藏和藏传佛教中的种种佛教概念),” Journal ofIndian Philosophy (《印度哲学杂志》) 32, 2004, pp. 321–343.
[24]关于西方本教研究的历史以及对佛本关系的看法,参见Per Kv?rne, “The Study of Bon in the West: Past, Present andFuture,” S.G. Karmay & Y. Nagano, eds., NewHorizons in Bon Studies (Senri Ethnological Reports no. 15), NationalMuseum of Ethnology, Osaka, 2000,pp. 7–20.
[28] Yoshiro Imaeda(今枝由郎),“The History of the Cycle of Birth and Death: A TibetanNarrative from Dunhuang(生死轮回史:一部来自敦煌的西藏叙事),” edited by Matthew T. Kapstein & Brandon Dotson , Contributions to the Cultural History ofEarly Tibet(《早期西藏文化史论集》),Leiden-Boston: E. J. Brill, 2007, pp. 105-181;同氏,“The Bar do thos grol, or ‘The Tibetan Book of the Dead’:TibetanConversion to Buddhism or Tibetanisation of Buddhism?(《中阴闻解脱》或者《西藏生死书》:西藏皈依佛教还是佛教的西藏化)” Esoteric Buddhismat Dunhuang: Rites and Teachings for this Life and Beyond(《敦煌密教:生死轮回的仪轨和义理》), Edited by Matthew T. Kapstein and Sam van Schaik,Leiden-Boston: E. J. Brill, 2010, pp. 145-158.
[29]关于《西藏死亡书》成书的历史,参见Bryn J. Cuevas, The Hidden History of the Tibetan Book ofthe Dead (《<西藏死亡书>秘史》),London: Oxford University Press, 2006.
[30]关于形成西藏活佛转世制度的教法依据,参见Leonard van der Kuijp,“Die Dalai Lamas von Tibet und die Ursprünge der Lama-Wiederrgeburten(西藏的达赖喇嘛和喇嘛转世的起源),” Martin Brauen (Hrsg.) Die Dalai Lamas: Tibets Reinkarnationen des Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara(《达赖喇嘛:西藏的观音菩萨的转世们》), Arnoldsche: V?lkerkundemuseum derUniversit?t Zürich, 2005, S. 14-31。关于西藏的政教合一制度,参见东嘎洛桑赤列著、陈庆英译,《论西藏政教合一制度》,拉萨:西藏人民出版社,2008年。DavidSeyfort Ruegg先生亦曾多次撰文讨论西藏的政教合一制度,但他讨论的重心似为藏传佛教历史书写中的“施供关系”,与西藏的“政教合一”制度不完全一致。参见David Seyfort Ruegg, “mchod yon, yon mchod and mchod gnas/yon gnas:On the historiography and semantics of a Tibetan religio-social andreligio-political concept(施供、供施和应供处/福田:论一个藏文宗教社会和宗教政治概念的语义学和历史书写)”, Ernst Steinkelnered., Tibetan History and Language(《西藏历史和语言》)(G.Uray Commemoration Volume 《乌瑞纪念文集》), Vienna i991, pp.441-453.
[35]参见Klaus Dieter Mathes, A Fine Blend of Mahāmudrā and Madhyamaka: Maitripa's Collection ofTexts on Non-Conceptual Realization (Amanasikara)(《大手印和中观的完美合流:銘得哩斡论不作意文集译注》, (Sitzungsberichte Der Philosophisch-Historischen Klasse), Wien: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2016.
[40]关于藏传密教本尊禅定修法的基本原理,参见Janet Gyatso, “AnAvalokite?vara Sadhana(一部观音成就法),”Religions of Tibet in Practice(《实践中的西藏宗教》),Edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr., Princeton Readings in Religions, Princeton, NewJersey: Princeton University Press, 1997, pp. 266-270.
[41]参见Alexis Sanderson, “The ?aiva Age:the rise and dominance of ?aivism during the early medieval period(湿婆时代:中世纪早期湿婆教的兴起和统治),” Genesisand Development of Tantrism (《密教的起源和发展》), editedby Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: University of Tokyo, Institute of Oriental Culture,2009, pp. 41-349.
[43]关于莲花生大师生平的最新研究参见TheSecond Buddha: Master of Time(《第二佛陀:时代的大师》), Tang / The Rubin Museum of Art/ DelMonicoBooks?Prestel, 2018,特别是其中的Lewis Doney,“Padmasambhava in the Conjured Past(在施了魔咒的过去中的莲花生)。”莲花生大师对于佛教在西藏传播和立足的贡献,相当于释迦牟尼于印度创立佛教的功德,故称“第二佛陀”。同样,于西藏佛教史上,还有阿底峡和宗喀巴也被称为“第二佛陀”。
[44]JacobP. Dalton and Sam van Schaik, TibetanTantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang: A Descriptive Catalogue of the SteinCollection at the British Library(《敦煌藏文密教写本:大英图书馆斯坦因藏品叙录》), Leiden: E. J. Brill,2006。Dalton和vanSchaik二位先生根据这些敦煌藏文密教文献对藏传佛教前弘期的密教做了很多探索型的研究。
[45]参见Samten Karmay, The Great Perfection: A Philosophical andMeditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism(《大圆满:藏传佛教的一个哲学的和修习的教法》), Leiden: E. J. Brill,1988;Jacob P. Dalton, “The EarlyDevelopment of the Padmasambhava Legend in Tibet: A Study of IOL. Tib J 644 andPelliot tibetain 307(西藏莲花生传奇的早期发展:伯希和敦煌藏文卷307号和大英图书馆藏敦煌藏文卷644号研究),” Journal of the American Oriental Society(《美国东方学会杂志》)124.4,2004, pp. 759-772.
[46]对新译密咒的传入与建立藏传佛教传统的关系的最有启发的探讨,参见前引Davidson, Tibetan Renaissance: Tantric Buddhism in theRebirth of Tibetan Culture。
[48]关于汉传密教是否存在、它是怎样的一种传承等有很多的学术争论,可参见Robert H. Sharf, “OnEsoteric Buddhism in China(论汉传密教),” Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of Treasure StoreTreatise(《理解汉传佛教——<宝藏论>解读》,”Honolulu: University of Hawai’I Press, 2001, pp. 263-278;此文的汉译见沈卫荣主编,《何谓密教关于密教的定义、修习、符号和历史的诠释与争论》,北京:中国藏学出版社,2013年,第114-142页。
[49]对于密乘佛教之宗教意义和合理性的讨论,参见Christian K. Wedemeyer, Making Sense of Tantric Buddhism: History,Semiology, and Transgression in the Indian Traditions(《为密乘佛教正名:在印度传统中的历史、符号学和违规》),New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 2012.
[50]例如,晚近逝世的宁玛派上师、畅销世界的《西藏生死书》(Tibetan Book of Living and Dying)的作者索甲活佛被人揭露出令人难以想象的不如法的行为,被拉下了神坛。参见MaryFinnigan and Rob Hogendoorn, Sex and Violence in Tibetan Buddhism: The Rise andFall of Sogyal Rinpoche (《藏传佛教中的性和暴力:索甲活佛的兴衰》),Portland, OR: Jorvik Press, 2019. 最早在西方公开揭露西藏喇嘛性侵行为的是苏格兰的宗教学者June Campbell,她披露自己曾多年为其上师、著名的密教瑜伽士卡鲁活佛(Kalu Rinpoche,1904-1989)的性伴侣,但她明确说明这种性行为和藏传密教的性瑜伽修法没有关系,她和卡鲁活佛的关系并非上师和明妃之间的宗教关系,而完全是一位年长的喇嘛对一位无知少女信徒的性侵犯和性剥削。参见June Campbell, Traveller in Space: In Search of Female Identity inTibetan Buddhism(《空行母:在藏传佛教中寻找女性认同》), George Braziller, 1996.